Black women and girls: Racism and intersectional oppression

The duel systemic societal harms of the COVID-19 pandemic and violent racial injustice have reexposed centuries-long oppression and violence that affects Black people in the United States. These systemic harms, however, are not unilaterally distributed across racial lines, as Black women and girls endure intersectional oppression, including the unique amalgamation of racism and sexism. It is within these interlocking oppressions that sexual abuse flourishes. This chapter opens with critical visioning regarding how we understand inequality in social justice movements. It introduces scholarship on anti-Black racism, intersectional oppression, and Crenshaw's (1991) theories of intersectionality to frame the contextually oppressive experiences of Black women and girls. The chapter provides an application for examining intersectionality within the field of psychology. It details what such intersectional oppression can actually look like in the lives of Black women and girls. Finally, the chapter closes with summary bullet points of the main takeaway messages. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved)

Policies enacted during COVID-19 came with unintended health benefits: why go back?

OBJECTIVES: To explore the impact of COVID-19 on the implementation of bundled interventions to improve the engagement and retention of Black women in HIV care. METHODS: Pre-implementation interviews conducted between January and April 202 L with 12 demonstration sites implementing bundled interventions for Black women with HIV. Directed content analysis was employed to examine the site interview transcripts. RESULTS: The pandemic intensified barriers to care and harmful social conditions. However, COVID-19 also forced pivots in health care and social service delivery and some of these changes benefited Black women living with HIV. CONCLUSIONS: The continuation of policies that support the material needs of Black women with HIV and ease access to care is critical. Racial capitalism impedes the enactment of these policies and thus threatens public health.

Black tax: Experiences of Black professional mothers during COVID-19

The purpose of this research study is to illuminate the lived experiences and Black tax professional Black mothers have incurred during the pandemic. Black tax, defined through the lens of Black professional mothers, proposes a new perspective: the intersectionality of being Black, a woman and a survivor of the COVID-19 pandemic. Guided by the strong Black woman schema and Double ABC-X Model as theoretical frameworks, this study examined the inequities of the additional stressors and responsibilities of working from home, heightened parent engagement, financial insecurity, and mental stress. During the timeframe of August 2020 and October 2021, Black mothers self-reported stressors and described their financial, job and housing insecurities to the U.S. Census Bureau Household Pulse Survey (HPS), publicly accessible data set. Data was collected biweekly for real time tracking. A series of chi-square goodness of fit tests and descriptive characteristics including frequency analysis were conducted to answer eight research questions. Three overarching key questions directed the statistical analyses: 1) How do Black mothers report stressors? 2) How do Black mothers describe their financial security and insecurity? 3) How did Black mothers navigate working from home and online education? Key findings indicated significant disproportionate levels of distress Black mothers compared to non-Black mothers during the pandemic. Results exposed the financial fragility, food insufficiency, housing insecurity and health inequities of this subset group. Implications for the field expanding current focus of societal effects of the pandemic to include examining the crisis Black professional mothers are struggling to manage as a result of the pandemic. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved)

Mental health in black women with endometriosis-related symptoms during COVID-19

Endometriosis is an incurable chronic illness impacting 190 million women worldwide. Despite the prevalence of this painful disease, research addressing how it affects Black women in the United States was limited. Research addressing this phenomenon during the COVID-19 pandemic was further limited. The purpose of this qualitative study employing an interpretative phenomenological analysis was to understand the mental health of Black women with endometriosis-related symptoms during the COVID-19 pandemic and how having the illness during the pandemic might have impacted individuals in this population. The strong Black woman schema and biopsychosocial model were the theoretical foundations for the study. Data were collected from semistructured interviews with eight Black women with endometriosis. Four major themes emerged from coding and thematic analysis: health, life with endometriosis, the U.S. health care system, and the nature of being a Black woman in the United States. Findings may be used to enhance awareness of Black women's experiences with endometriosis while facing cultural stigmas, systemic disparities, COVID-19 restrictions, and other barriers. Findings could also encourage positive social change through increased funding for endometriosis research and resources to educate providers, raise public awareness, and provide culturally appropriate support and treatment for Black women. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved)

Sister, Give Me Your Hand: a Qualitative Focus Group Study on Beliefs and Barriers to Mammography Screening in Black Women During the COVID-19 Era.

AIMS/PURPOSE: To evaluate current day challenges and beliefs about breast cancer screening for Black women in two diverse northeast communities in the midst of the COVID-19 pandemic. BACKGROUND: Breast cancer is the second leading cause of cancer-related death in women in the USA. Although Black women are less likely to be diagnosed with breast cancer, they suffer a higher mortality. Early detection of breast cancer can be accomplished through routine screening mammography, yet the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on mammography screening barriers and perception in minority communities is uncertain. METHODS: Five focus group interviews were conducted as the first phase of a mixed method study across two heterogeneously diverse locations, Camden, New Jersey, and Brooklyn, New York. RESULTS: Thirty-three women participated in this study; sixteen women were recruited at the New Jersey location and seventeen at the New York location. Only two thirds of the women stated that they had received a mammogram within the last 2 years. The major themes were binary: I get screened or I do not get screened. Subthemes were categorized as patient related or system related. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings on factors that affect breast cancer screening decisions during the COVID-19 era include barriers that are related to poverty and insurance status, as well as those that are related to medical mistrust and negative healthcare experiences. Community outreach efforts should concentrate on building trust, providing equitable digital access, and skillfully addressing breast health perceptions.

"This Person is Safe": An Exemplar of Conducting Individual Interviews in Qualitative Research with Black Women

Significant conceptual and empirical evidence has been found through qualitative research about the benefits, limitations, and uses of individual interviews. However, there is scant research illustrating how researchers use specific techniques that center participants' intersecting identities to build rapport, trust, and authentic connections during individual interviews, and especially during interviews with Black women. We illustrate how we used eight empirically grounded techniques in our qualitative individual interviews with Black women. Through our analysis of the interviews, the concept of safety emerged. "This person is safe" reflects the combined stories the women reported regarding their experiences engaging in individual interviews. In this article, we provide a brief background on individual interviewing in qualitative research, followed by the framing of our work. Thereafter, we provide context about the exemplar study, outline techniques shown to be effective in the literature, and provide examples from the exemplar study to show how each technique was used. Further research is needed to examine how researchers use various techniques in qualitative individual interviews in general, but with Black women more specifically.

"It was just one moment that I felt like I was being judged": Pregnant and postpartum black Women's experiences of personal and group-based racism during the COVID-19 pandemic.

BACKGROUND: Racial inequities in maternal and child health outcomes persist: Black women and birthing people experience higher rates of adverse outcomes than their white counterparts. Similar inequities are seen in coronavirus disease (COVID-19) mortality rates. In response, we sought to explore the intersections of racism and the COVID-19 pandemic impact on the daily lives and perinatal care experiences of Black birthing people. METHODS: We used an intrinsic case study approach grounded in an intersectional lens to collect stories from Black pregnant and postpartum people residing in Fresno County (July-September 2020). All interviews were conducted on Zoom without video and were audio recorded and transcribed. Thematic analysis was used to group codes into larger themes. RESULTS: Of the 34 participants included in this analysis, 76.5% identified as Black only, and 23.5% identified as multiracial including Black. Their mean age was 27.2 years [SD, 5.8]. Nearly half (47%) reported being married or living with their partner; all were eligible for Medi-Cal insurance. Interview times ranged from 23 to 96 min. Five themes emerged: (1) Tensions about Heightened Exposure of Black Lives Matter Movement during the pandemic; (2) Fear for Black Son's Safety; (3) Lack of Communication from Health Care Professionals; (4) Disrespect from Health Care Professionals; and (5) Misunderstood or Judged by Health Care Professionals. Participants stressed that the Black Lives Matter Movement is necessary and highlighted that society views their Black sons as a threat. They also reported experiencing unfair treatment and harassment while seeking perinatal care. CONCLUSIONS: Black women and birthing people shared that exposure to racism has heightened during the COVID-19 pandemic, increasing their levels of stress and anxiety. Understanding how racism impacts Black birthing people's lives and care experiences is critical to reforming the police force and revising enhanced prenatal care models to better address their needs.

Women in higher education: exclusion, inclusion and seclusion

This literature review is conceptually rooted in intersectional feminism and Harding's (2004) standpoint theory. I assert and affirm my positionality as a black woman from the Global South as I unpack the literature on women in higher education. I use the concepts of inclusion and exclusion to illustrate that while women are unequivocally in higher education, they remain largely out of positions of power. The concept of seclusion is used to describe women's and institutions' obscured and hidden behaviors that reinforce gendered patterns of women's subsistence in higher education. The review also highlights two key persistent challenges, namely, that of the impossibility of work life balance, especially, but not only, for academic mothers;and of being a black woman in academia. I offer insight into the devastating impacts of covid-19 on women academics and academic mothers. The review also identifies strategies used to make qualitative shifts in women's occupation of higher education spaces. © 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

‘Andizi': black women remaking the university in KwaZulu-Natal

This paper represents narratives from black women who work at the University of KwaZulu-Natal. Their stories unearth their impossible existence within the institution and deliberateness on their survival tactics through theorising Nguni concepts of Ukuzilanda, Ukufukuza, and Andizi. In a world that does not ‘trust' black women to have a voice, have feelings, and have a story, the dialogue amongst these academics sheds light on how their everyday resistance is their survival. The paper takes a self-study approach to record the moment and define survival in anti-black, anti-women employment space. The paper also explores how the Covid-19 pandemic revealed distrust that the world usually shows towards black women.

Black women in white academe: a qualitative analysis of heightened inclusion tax

This article explores how existing issues of systemic racism in academia were heightened for Black women faculty during COVID-19 which coincided with high-profile killings of Black people in 2020. Several theories of cultural taxation have created space to discuss the nuanced experiences of marginalized groups in white spaces. In reflecting on academia, this article highlights "the inclusion tax” – the various labours exerted to be included in white spaces and resist and/or adhere to white social norms. While the 2020 pandemics reveal the deeply entrenched nature of systemic racism, they did not create the inequities Black women faced but worsened and exposed them. Using data from an exploratory, online open-ended survey of sixteen (n = 16) Black women faculty, we demonstrate how the inclusion tax heightened during that time. We argue that the inclusion tax negatively impacts Black women, adding significant invisible labour that further perpetuates racial and gender inequality.

The lived experience of African American women leaders concerning intersectionality and the methodologies they utilize to overcome barriers to leadership

African American women face barriers that prevent them from obtaining leadership positions. As a result, African American women are underrepresented in leadership positions. During the midst of the Coronavirus (COVID) Pandemic in 2020, the participation rate for African American women was 58.8% in the labor force, compared to all women, which was 56.2%. However, African American women only represented 1.4% of C-Suite, leadership positions. The purpose of this hermeneutic phenomenological study was to explore the lived experiences of 10 African American women leaders at the GS-14 and GS-15 grade level. The participants were supervisors who worked at federal government agencies in the Washington, DC Metropolitan Area. The conceptual framework encompasses leadership, intersectionality, and methodologies to overcome barriers to leadership. The research questions are "What is the lived experience of African American women leaders concerning intersectionality? and "What are the methodologies they utilize to overcome barriers to leadership?" Those who will benefit from this study include African American women aspiring to leadership positions and organizational leaders who aim to better understand the barriers that African American women face. The findings reflected how African American women leaders described their lived experiences and the methodologies they utilized to overcome barriers to leadership. Based on the findings, African American women leaders should continue to strive for equity in the workplace and should have the same opportunities as all counterparts. However, to further inclusion, more support needs to be provided to African American women in the workplace through organizational support. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved)

An online investigation into factors related to Black maternal mortality using retrospective recall of a prior birth hospitalization with a risk of death- predicting medical mistrust

The problem that this study addressed was the high rate of maternal mortality for Black women in the United States, which has been rising, including before the COVID-19 pandemic. The goal was to identify significant predictors of medical mistrust. The study recruited a convenience sample via an online social media campaign. The resultant sample was 100% Black and female (N=192) with a mean age of 33.23 (SD= 4.980, min=24, max=61), while 94.8% were born in the United States (n=182). Using background stepwise regression, the following were found to be significant predictors of a higher level of medical mistrust: older age (B = .033, p = .001);higher levels of education (B = 0.205, p = .000);lower annual household income (B = -.055, p = .026);higher level of perceived racism, discrimination, and inequity in treatment from medical staff (B = 0.137, p = .046);lower levels of cultural sensitivity/ competence/ humility ratings for medical staff (B = -.155, p = .002);higher past year mental distress (i.e., Depression, Anxiety, Insomnia and Trauma) (B = .369, p = .000);and lower levels of social support post-partum (B = -0.162, p = .004)-with 46.5% of the variance predicted by the model (R2 = 0.698, Adjusted R2 = 0.465).The study findings highlight a crisis of Black maternal mortality in the United States, as well as a crisis in healthcare service delivery to Black women, as uncovered via this study. The data betrays a dimension of the crisis in healthcare service delivery to Black women who report experiencing discrimination for being Black at 75.5%, for their appearance (skin tone, hair, etc.) at 62.0%, and for being overweight or obese at 28.6%. Implications of the findings are discussed, while recommendations for future research are offered. In terms of those implications, perhaps most importantly, this data effectively identifies the year after a high-risk birth hospitalization as an essential time for ensuring Black women enter counseling with licensed and certified mental health professionals. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved)

COVID-19 and obstetric outcomes: a single-center retrospective experience in a predominantly Black population.

Objective: This retrospective, single-center case series was designed to characterize the effects of perinatal COVID-19 diagnosis on obstetric and neonatal outcomes in a predominantly high-risk, urban Black population.Study Design: Data were collected via retrospective chart review on all COVID-19-positive obstetric patients and their neonates who presented to the University of Chicago Medical Center between March 2020 and November 2020, before the availability of the COVID-19 vaccine. Patient demographics, delivery outcomes, COVID-19 symptoms, treatment, and outcomes were analyzed.Results: A total of 56 COVID-19-positive obstetric patients were included in the study, of which four were lost to follow-up before delivery. The median age of patients was 27 years (IQR 23, 32), with 73.2% publicly insured and 66.1% Black. Patients had a median body mass index (BMI) of 31.6 kg/m2 (IQR 25.9, 35.5). 3.6% of patients had chronic hypertension, 12.5% had diabetes, and 16.1% had asthma. Perinatal complications were common. Twenty-six patients (50.0%) had a diagnosis of a hypertensive disorder of pregnancy (HDP). 28.8% had gestational hypertension, and 21.2% had preeclampsia (with and without severe features). The rate of maternal ICU admission was 3.6%. Furthermore, 23.5% of patients delivered preterm (<37 weeks gestation), and 50.9% of infants were admitted to the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU).Conclusion: In our study of a predominantly Black, publicly-insured, unvaccinated group of COVID-19-positive pregnant patients, we found high rates of hypertensive disorders of pregnancy, preterm delivery, and NICU admission compared to rates reported in existing literature before widespread vaccine availability. Our findings suggest that SARS-CoV-2 infection during pregnancy, irrespective of maternal disease severity, may exacerbate existing obstetric health disparities by disproportionately impacting Black, publicly insured patients. Larger comparative studies are needed to better characterize possible racial and socioeconomic disparities in obstetric outcomes in the setting of SARS-CoV-2 infection during pregnancy. These studies should examine the pathophysiology of SARS-CoV-2 infection during pregnancy, as well as potential associations between adverse perinatal outcomes and disparities in access to care, COVID-19 vaccination, and other social determinants of health amongst more vulnerable populations infected with SARS-CoV-2 during pregnancy.

The Evolution of Dignity: An Intervention Model to Engage and Retain HIV-Positive Black Women in Care.

The Black community is currently battling two pandemics, one is HIV, and the other is COVID-19. Similarly, as with HIV, COVID-19 has shone a spotlight on our healthcare system's structural failings and revealed the disproportionate impact on the Black community, particularly Black women. Black women accounted for the largest proportion of new HIV diagnoses (58 %) among all women in 2018 and represented about one-quarter of new HIV diagnoses among all Black Americans. Additionally, Black women's exposure to an abundance of misinformation about the COVID-19 infection resulted in an increased risk of complications and death from the COVID-19 virus compared to other racial and ethnic groups. Factors that increase HIV transmission risks for Black women include living in poverty, intimate partner violence, and stigma associated with HIV. Moreover, environmental, physical, cultural, financial, social, and psychological barriers are identified as unique challenges for this population's cohort. After being diagnosed with HIV, Black often were unable to access quality HIV care. Access and retention in care are tantamount to the overall well-being of women who are HIV positive. Frequently healthcare providers may attempt to engage and retain patients using only clinical measures. Our non-clinical intervention, The Evolution of Dignity, supports medical outcomes by creating a process that empowers women to motivate themselves toward improved health outcomes while ensuring their engagement and retention in care. Thus, by implementing our comprehensive intervention, all of the necessary elements contributing and promoting improved service utilization and medical adherence are integrated.

Black women social workers: Workplace stress experiences

Black women social workers (BWSWs) represent essential workforce members who are burdened by ongoing COVID-19 circumstances. Strategies to deal with highly stressful situations on the job, such as those experienced in 2020, were absent from the research literature leaving intervention strategies to support highly stressed BWSWs unknown. This study aimed to uncover the various ways BWSWs experienced their organizations as they performed work duties. Atlas.ti. 9 was used to analyze verbatim transcripts from 17 semi-structured qualitative interviews given by BWSWs across the United States in February 2021. Hermeneutic phenomenology was implemented to interpret interview data. The convenience sample was drawn from professional organizations where BWSWs claimed membership and volunteered to be electronically interviewed for 2 hours generating themes such as stress perceptions, institutional barriers to efficient work productivity and recommendations for workplace support. BWSWs reported high stress work environments in the past year. Some believed that their health and mental health declined because of the inability to find work-home life balance. Findings suggest BWSWs persevere regardless of high levels of stress and being unsupported in the workplace in order to maintain a livelihood. BWSWs play a crucial role in the lives of vulnerable populations, but need to attend to ways to be healthier given the polarization associated with racism, classism, and sexism experienced. Thematically, the data revealed stressful situations in the workplace and how organizations have failed to implement strategies in order to improve social worker health. Suggestions for workplace supports were also identified. © The Author(s) 2023.

Just because it don't look heavy, don't mean it ain't: An intersectional analysis of Black women's labor as faculty during COVID

The purpose of our scholarly personal narrative was to examine how COVID‐19 and an increased awareness of anti‐Blackness in the United States have exacerbated our labor as Black women faculty, with particular focus on teaching and service responsibilities. Dill and Zambrana's (2009) four theoretical interventions of intersectionality guided our study, and we situated our composite narratives within structural, disciplinary, hegemonic, and interpersonal power domains. Our four composite narratives included (1) Interest convergence, there is no real true investment in change;(2) Institutional intent versus impact, I don't know how it will be incorporated;(3) Perpetuation of Black women's labor, just because it don't look heavy, don't mean it ain't;and (4) Reclaiming my time, and it's not because I don't like them, but it's because I love me. Implications for practice and policy are discussed.

The lived experience of African American women leaders concerning intersectionality and the methodologies they utilize to overcome barriers to leadership

African American women face barriers that prevent them from obtaining leadership positions. As a result, African American women are underrepresented in leadership positions. During the midst of the Coronavirus (COVID) Pandemic in 2020, the participation rate for African American women was 58.8% in the labor force, compared to all women, which was 56.2%. However, African American women only represented 1.4% of C-Suite, leadership positions. The purpose of this hermeneutic phenomenological study was to explore the lived experiences of 10 African American women leaders at the GS-14 and GS-15 grade level. The participants were supervisors who worked at federal government agencies in the Washington, DC Metropolitan Area. The conceptual framework encompasses leadership, intersectionality, and methodologies to overcome barriers to leadership. The research questions are "What is the lived experience of African American women leaders concerning intersectionality? and "What are the methodologies they utilize to overcome barriers to leadership?" Those who will benefit from this study include African American women aspiring to leadership positions and organizational leaders who aim to better understand the barriers that African American women face. The findings reflected how African American women leaders described their lived experiences and the methodologies they utilized to overcome barriers to leadership. Based on the findings, African American women leaders should continue to strive for equity in the workplace and should have the same opportunities as all counterparts. However, to further inclusion, more support needs to be provided to African American women in the workplace through organizational support. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved)

Smart Walk: A Culturally Tailored Smartphone-Delivered Physical Activity Intervention for Cardiometabolic Risk Reduction among African American Women.

This article reports the results of Smart Walk: a randomized pilot trial of an 8-month culturally tailored, smartphone-delivered physical activity (PA) intervention for African American women with obesity. Sixty participants (age range = 24−49 years; BMI range = 30−58 kg/m2) were randomized to the Smart Walk intervention (n = 30) or a wellness comparison intervention (n = 30). Results supported the acceptability and feasibility of the intervention, as demonstrated by participant retention (85% at 4 months and 78% at 8 months), Smart Walk app use, and intervention satisfaction (i.e., 100% of PA participants completing the intervention [n = 24] reported they would recommend it to friend). Smart Walk participants also reported greater increases in moderate-to-vigorous PA (4-month between-arm difference in change [b] = 43.3 min/week; p = 0.018; Cohen's d = 0.69; 8-month b = 56.6 min/week; p = 0.046; d = 0.63) and demonstrated clinically relevant, although not statistically significant (p-values > 0.05), baseline to 4 months improvements in cardiorespiratory fitness (b = 1.67 mL/kg/min; d = 0.40), systolic blood pressure (b = −3.33 mmHg; d = 0.22), diastolic blood pressure (b = −4.28 mmHg; d = 0.37), and pulse wave velocity (b = −0.46 m/s; d = 0.33). Eight-month cardiometabolic outcomes followed similar trends, but had high rates of missing data (45−53%) due to COVID-19 restrictions. Collectively, findings demonstrated favorable outcomes for acceptability and feasibility, while also highlighting key areas for refinement in future research.

Black women in white academe: a qualitative analysis of heightened inclusion tax

This article explores how existing issues of systemic racism in academia were heightened for Black women faculty during COVID-19 which coincided with high-profile killings of Black people in 2020. Several theories of cultural taxation have created space to discuss the nuanced experiences of marginalized groups in white spaces. In reflecting on academia, this article highlights "the inclusion tax" - the various labours exerted to be included in white spaces and resist and/or adhere to white social norms. While the 2020 pandemics reveal the deeply entrenched nature of systemic racism, they did not create the inequities Black women faced but worsened and exposed them. Using data from an exploratory, online open-ended survey of sixteen (n = 16) Black women faculty, we demonstrate how the inclusion tax heightened during that time. We argue that the inclusion tax negatively impacts Black women, adding significant invisible labour that further perpetuates racial and gender inequality.

Women in higher education: exclusion, inclusion and seclusion

This literature review is conceptually rooted in intersectional feminism and Harding's (2004) standpoint theory. I assert and affirm my positionality as a black woman from the Global South as I unpack the literature on women in higher education. I use the concepts of inclusion and exclusion to illustrate that while women are unequivocally in higher education, they remain largely out of positions of power. The concept of seclusion is used to describe women's and institutions' obscured and hidden behaviors that reinforce gendered patterns of women's subsistence in higher education. The review also highlights two key persistent challenges, namely, that of the impossibility of work life balance, especially, but not only, for academic mothers;and of being a black woman in academia. I offer insight into the devastating impacts of covid-19 on women academics and academic mothers. The review also identifies strategies used to make qualitative shifts in women's occupation of higher education spaces.